D-K達克效應The Dunning
無知者無畏──你自我感覺良好嗎？Kruger Effect-Are you as capable as you think you are?
一九九九年，社會心理學家大衛˙達寧與賈斯汀˙克魯格做了一系列研究，評估人們在包括文法、幽默、邏輯等領域的能力；同時，他們也要求受試者評估自己在各項領域中的能力。
達寧和克魯格發現，測試得分很低的人卻傾向容易高估自身的能力。
後來的研究亦顯示，類似原則同樣適用於其他領域。 缺乏能力的人通常也缺乏意識自身不足的能力；換句話說，無知的人認為自己所知道的比實際上的還多。
該原則現已成為眾所周知的「達克效應」，這個名稱是以發現此原則的兩位研究學者而命名。
達克效應之所以產生，是因為只有當人們於某特定領域擁有技能時，才具備評估自己的能力。
例如，在某些情況中，需要經由科學家才能辨識出「壞」科學。
再者，大多數人都會偏袒自己。
他們想要相信自己更有能力、更有知識，甚至也許比其他人更加優秀。
而當一個人非常希望一件事成為真實的時候，便很難承認那並非事實。
In 1999, social psychologists David Dunning and Justin Kruger did a series of studies evaluating people's competence in certain areas, including grammar, humor and logic. The people in the studies were also asked to evaluate their own abilities in each area. Dunning and Kruger found that people who scored very low on the tests tended to overestimate their abilities. Later research has indicated that a similar
principle applies to other areas as well. People who lack skills also tend to lack the ability to realize their shortcomings. In other words, those who don't know much think they know more than they actually do.
This principle has become known as the Dunning-Kruger effect after the researchers who discovered it. The Dunning-Kruger effect occurs because only when people have skills in a given area are they equipped to evaluate their own skills. For example, in some situations it takes a scientist to recognize bad science.
Moreover, most people are biased in their own favor. They want to believe that they are more capable, knowledgeable and maybe even superior to others. and when someone really wants something to be true, it can be hard for them to admit that is isn’t.
tend to（ph.v）傾向；易於
Melanie tends to believe whatever anyone tells her.
Robert tends to trust his assistant to take care of his schedule.
安排行程
tend to（ph.v）照顧；照料
Janice took time off from work to tend to her sick son.
請假照顧生病的孩子
overestimate（v）高估
Nick had a hard time finishing the project because he had overestimated his abilities.
高估自己的能力
The Beatles’ influence on rock music can’t be overestimated.
不容小覷
We overestimated how long the trip from the airport to our hotel would take and arrived too early to check in.
過高估計機場到飯店的時間
self-awareness
We are often, um, tempted to compare ourselves with other people or put ourselves on a scale that maybe isn't black-and-white. So it can be hard to be self-aware about what we're really good at or not good at.
competence
tend（v.）／tendency（n.）
they do it often without thinking about it
respectfully／respectively
respectfully尊敬地；恭敬地
I must respectfully disagree with you.
respectively
My son and daughter are 14 and 9 years old, respectively.一個14歲一個9歲
shortcoming
biased有偏見的
bias（v.）
Madeline can’t be a judge of the singing contest because she is always biased toward her relatives. 偏袒自己的親戚
When Vincent read the report, he could tell the author was biased against who lived in small towns.
對住在小鎮的人有偏見
bias（n.）偏見
The company’s bias against women got them into a lot of trouble.
knowledgeable（adj.）博學的；有知識的
Kevin is very knowledgeable about the native plants in the rainforest.
Sawyer always shops at the store on the corner because she feels the staff is knowledgeable and helpful.
We felt we needed a knowledgeable guide to take us into the jungle to look for wild animals.
skills vs. skillest vs. a special set of skills
We could say that someone has a skill set if there are a lot of different skills that they have, especially if they are related in some way.
That means that they are very good at something in a very particular area.
Like if you've ever gone to teppanyaki, those chefs have a very special set of skills when they're cooking your delicious meal.
鐵板燒是日本料理的一類，是以一塊大鐵板把食物加熱，由廚師在鐵板上燒烤及處理各種食材。常見的鐵板燒料理有日本式燒肉及源自日本關西地區的御好燒等。
it takes ＋（n.）＋to（v.）
it takes someone to know something
That means if you really want to know what it is, you need to be a certain type of person.
to put a positive spin on ＋（n.）
you’re making something seem better than it is or making it seem different than it actually is.
speak the truth in love
constructive criticism
I hope that I am an approachable person that people feel safe that they can come and tell me about something, you know, whether it's things that they like about me or what I did or things or ways where I can improve.
approachable person友好的、平易近人的人
